刊讯｜SSCI 期刊《语言教学研究》2024年第1-2期

Language Teaching Research

Volume 28, Issue 1-2, 2024

 Language Teaching Research（SSCI一区，2023 IF：3.3，排名：16/194）2024年第1-2期共发文30篇，评论2篇。研究论文涉及教学方法和策略、学习者参与和动机、语言学习效果评估、语言学习者的认知和心理过程、语言教学材料和内容分析、语言教师的知识和信念、语言学习环境和背景、语言技能的具体研究、语言习得和语言发展和社会心理学和情感因素。欢迎转发扩散！

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刊讯｜SSCI 期刊《语言教学研究》2023年第5-6期

刊讯｜SSCI 期刊《语言教学研究》2023年第1-4期

目录

ARTICLES

■The relative effects of L1 and L2 glosses on L2 learning: A meta-analysis, by Hyun Soo Kim, Jang Ho Lee, Hansol Lee, Pages 7–28.

■Teacher beliefs about instructional approaches: Interrogating the notion of teaching methods, by Pamela M. Wesely, Reuben Vyn, Diane Neubauer, Pages 29–51.

■The influence of small groups on leader stability and task engagement in the language classroom, by Paul Leeming, Pages 52–78.

■‘Should textbook images be merely decorative?’: Cultural representations in the Iranian EFL national textbook from the semiotic approach perspective, by Ali Derakhshan, Pages 79–113.

■An analysis of pragmatic content in EFL textbooks for young learners in Croatia, by Eva Jakupčević, Mihajla Ćavar Portolan, Pages 114–137.

■Learning new verbs with known cue words: The relative effects of noun and adverb cues, by Kiwamu Kasahara, Akifumi Yanagisawa, Pages 138–155.

■Revisiting the effectiveness of study abroad language programs: A multi-level meta-analysis, by Wen-Ta Tseng, Yeu-Ting Liu, Yi-Ting Hsu, Hsi-Chin Chu, Pages 156–200.

■Engagement in language learning: A systematic review of 20 years of research methods and definitions, by Phil Hiver, Ali H. Al-Hoorie, Joseph P. Vitta, Janice Wu, Pages 201–230.

■ The effects of four instructional strategies on English learners’ English reading comprehension: A meta-analysis, by Jui-Teng Li, Fuhui Tong, Beverly J. Irby, Rafael Lara-Alecio, Hector Rivera, Pages 231-252.

■Referencing word and phrase lists in an online vocabulary notebook, by Nathaniel Carney, Pages 253–272.

■ Pre-service Chinese language teachers’ conceptions of assessment: A person-centered perspective, by Lin Lin, Guan Ying Li, Xuejun Guo, Pages 273–295.

■ The impact of explicit strategy instruction on EFL secondary school learners’ reading, by Muthita Chinpakdee, Peter Yongqi Gu, Pages 296–319.

■Effects of the 4/3/2 activity revisited: Extending Boers (2014) and Thai & Boers (2016)，by Mai Ngoc Tran，Kazuya Saito，Pages 326–345.

■Task complexity, L2 proficiency and EFL learners’ L1 use in task-based peer interaction，by Jinfen Xu，Yumei Fan，Pages 346–365.

■Individual differences in self-regulated learning: Exploring the nexus of motivational beliefs, self-efficacy, and SRL strategies in EFL writing, by Lin Sophie Teng, Pages 366–388.

■Teachers’ perceptions of linguistic mediation in the curriculum for advanced English in Madrid secondary schools, by  Miguel Fernández Álvarez, Silvia García Hernández, Pages 389–412.

■Maximizing the benefits of peer interaction: Form-focused instruction and peer feedback training, by Lieselotte Sippel, Pages 413–439.

■‘How much freedom do we have?’ The perceived autonomy of secondary school EFL teachers in Indonesia, by Andrzej Cirocki, Syafi’ul Anam, Pages 440–465.

■Effects of interactive alignment on L2 vocabulary learning by Chinese EFL learners, by Xiao Zhou, Chuming Wang, Pages 466–496.

■A longitudinal study of formulaic sequence use in second language writing: Complex dynamic systems perspective, by Shiping Duan, Zhiliang Shi, Pages 497–530.

■Task-induced involvement load, vocabulary learning in a foreign language, and their association with metacognition, Mark Feng Teng, Danyang Zhang, Pages 531–555.

■The effects of reference of comparison (self-referential vs. normative) and regulatory focus (promotion vs. prevention) feedback on EFL learners’ willingness to communicate, Nourollah Zarrinabadi, Elham Saberi Dehkordi, Pages 556–576.

■Understanding reading teachers’ self-directed use of drama-based pedagogy in an under-resourced educational setting: A case study in China, Xiaodong Zhang, Pages 577–598.

■Emblematic gestures learning in Spanish as L2/FL: Interactions between types of gestures and tasks, by Helena S. Belío-Apaolaza, Natividad Hernández Muñoz, Pages 599–631.

■Investigating the effect of textual enhancement in post-reading tasks on grammatical development by child language learners, Yoojin Chung, Andrea Révész, Pages 632–653.

■Social psychological accounts of peer emotion transfer in EFL classrooms: A doubly latent multilevel analysis, by Kaiqi Shao, Brian Parkinson, Pages 654–678.

■The effects of a metacognitive intervention on lower-proficiency EFL learners’ listening comprehension and listening self-efficacy, by Brett Milliner, Blagoja Dimoski, Pages 679–713.

■Extending the efficacy of Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR) in teaching reading strategies: A socio-cultural emotional perspective,  by Ali Amjadi, Seyed Hassan Talebi, Pages 714–748.

■On the acquisition of complex classifier constructions by L2 learners of a sign language, by Eveline Boers-Visker, Pages 749–785.

■A practitioner study on the implementation of strategy instruction for boredom regulation, by Sachiko Nakamura, Pornapit Darasawang, Hayo Reinders, Pages 786–808.

摘要

The relative effects of L1 and L2 glosses on L2 learning: A meta-analysis

Hyun Soo Kim, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Department of Life Science, Dongguk University Biomedi Campus, Goyang-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea

Jang Ho Lee, Department of English Education, Chung-Ang University, 84 Heukseok-ro, Dongjak-gu, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea. 

Hansol Lee, Korea Military Academy, Republic of Korea

Abstract Glossing is a widely used and examined vocabulary learning tool, and one of the major branches of glossing research has compared the relative effects of first language (L1) and second language (L2) glosses on reading comprehension and vocabulary learning. However, the findings in this literature have not been consistent, calling for a comprehensive and systematic review. To this end, we conducted a meta-analysis to investigate the relative effects of L1 and L2 glossing on L2 reading comprehension and L2 vocabulary learning. Based on 78 effect sizes gathered from 26 studies representing 30 independent samples (N = 2,189), we found that L1 glossing was more effective than L2 glossing in general (Hedge’s g = .33, SE = .09, p < .001), but the effect size may vary depending on the target outcome measure. The relative effectiveness of L1 glossing was particularly supported by the results of immediate posttests of vocabulary, rather than delayed posttests of vocabulary and reading comprehension tests. Further, among a few selected moderator variables, the results of meta-regression revealed that learners’ L2 proficiency level significantly influenced the average effectiveness, such that L1 glossing is particularly effective for beginner learners compared to those with intermediate or higher L2 proficiency levels.

Teacher beliefs about instructional approaches: Interrogating the notion of teaching methods

Pamela M. Wesely, University of Iowa, USA

Reuben Vyn, University of Iowa, USA

Diane Neubauer, University of Iowa, USA

AbstractWorld language teachers have historically relied on the notion of teaching methods to inform elements of design and procedure in their instructional practice. Teacher beliefs about teaching methods, however, have been shown to be significantly influenced by their context, including their institution and their learners. This phenomenon has led some scholars to identify a postmethod condition, where teachers prioritize making responsive, principled decisions about instruction based on their context. This qualitative study investigated the patterns and realities of the postmethod condition in practice through the lens of teacher beliefs about teaching methods, focusing on ten secondary-level world language teachers of French and Spanish in the USA. Data sources included a survey about teaching methods, in-depth interviews, and classroom observations. Data analysis included descriptive statistics, multiple phases of coding, and integrating analysis of the three sources. Findings indicated that teachers in this group largely identified as adhering to one main teaching approach, with eight of the ten self-identifying as using primarily comprehensible input and/or TPRS (Teaching Proficiency through Reading and Storytelling) methods. However, through investigating their beliefs about grammar and accuracy; the four skills of reading, writing, listening, and speaking; the importance of input and output; and instructional flow, we found that the teachers examined and reexamined their teaching methods regularly, largely due to the influences of their learners and their institution. The relationship between the teachers’ beliefs and practices was mediated by context-driven instructional decision-making, indicating the presence of a postmethod condition.

The influence of small groups on leader stability and task engagement in the language classroom

Paul Leeming, Kindai University, Japan

Abstract Groupwork has become ubiquitous in language education, with the clear benefits of interaction and output on language acquisition. A body of research has investigated this interaction in pairs and small groups, and there is an increased understanding that individual group context is a key factor in determining the behavior of students. This article reports on a study that first investigated emergent leadership within groups, and the influence of the group on leader stability. The study then examined how leadership is represented in student task engagement. Students were placed into fixed small groups for the first semester, and then allowed to self-select into groups for the second semester. Perceptions of leadership were measured three times in each semester, and leaders were identified in each group. Results showed that changing group membership had a considerable impact on leadership stability, and student interaction was then analysed to determine how leadership influenced engagement with tasks. Students with high leadership displayed high engagement with tasks, and took a central role in driving the conversation. When a student chose to reject the role of leader there was a dramatic impact on their engagement in conversation. The stability of leadership and its impact on performance has practical implications both for researchers and teachers.

‘Should textbook images be merely decorative?’: Cultural representations in the Iranian EFL national textbook from the semiotic approach perspective

Ali Derakhshan, Golestan University, Iran

Abstract  Studies examining culture representation in language textbooks have rarely adopted the semiotic approach, despite its potential for presenting and (re)creating cultural meanings at their various levels (i.e. cultural, intercultural, multicultural, and transcultural) in the co-instantiations of texts, tasks, and images. To address this issue, a qualitative analysis, embarking on the Peircean semiotic theory, was applied on the text-image-task semiotic relationship. It explored its potential for constructing and reconstructing cultural meanings relative to the Iranian national English as a foreign language (EFL) textbook, Vision 1, from the perspectives of Iranian EFL students, teachers, and teacher educators. Content and thematic analyses of the interview records revealed three themes: first, the co-instantiation of the image and text was indexical, cultural awareness and connotations were almost untouched; second, the textual and visual components driving intercultural meanings and interpretations were not in accordance with the tasks; and, third, some alternative more culturally engaging images were provided by the interviewees. On the whole, the findings confirmed the previous findings that the discourse of this brand-new Iranian localized EFL textbook leaves little space to raise cultural awareness for its users. Based on the findings, a dynamic model for evaluating cultural representations in textbooks is suggested, hoping to show how EFL textbooks can be developed, implemented, and received more effectively in instructional settings.

An analysis of pragmatic content in EFL textbooks for young learners in Croatia

Eva Jakupčević, University of Split, Croatia

Mihajla Ćavar Portolan, University of Zagreb, Croatia

AbstractPragmatic competence is an essential element of communicative competence, which makes it relevant for speakers of all ages, including young language learners (YLLs). Despite the recognized importance of pragmatics, research of textbooks for adult second language (L2) learners to date has found them lacking in their approach to this key aspect of language. However, there is very little research of pragmatics in textbooks for YLLs, which would provide insight into the extent to which these materials can support teachers in including elements of pragmatic competence into their language classes. The present study aims to fill this gap by determining how much pragmatic content is included in 18 textbooks used in Croatian primary schools with learners aged 9–12 years. The textbooks are compared in regard to the percentage of pages with pragmatic content as well as the different speech acts that receive explicit attention in them. The main finding of the study is the great amount of inconsistency when it comes to the scope and treatment of pragmatic content, with some textbooks proving extremely lacking. The results present a concerning picture as all of the students using these diverse textbooks should be following the same curriculum which emphasizes the development of communicative competence.

Learning new verbs with known cue words: The relative effects of noun and adverb cues

Kiwamu Kasahara, Hokkaido University of Education, Japan

Akifumi Yanagisawa, University of Western Ontario, Canada

Abstract Research has shown that learning a known-and-unknown word combination leads to greater learning than learning an unknown word alone (Kasahara, 2010, 2011). These studies found that attaching a known adjective to an unknown noun can help learners remember the unknown noun. Kasahara (2015) found that a known verb can serve as an effective cue to remember an unknown noun in a known-and-unknown combination. To examine useful cues to learn unknown verbs, this study compared verb (unknown) + noun (known) combinations to verb (unknown) + adverb (known) combinations. Additionally, we explored how learners’ vocabulary size would affect the known-and-unknown two-word combination learning to deepen our understanding of the characteristics of students who benefit from combination learning. The participants in each group learned 18 two-word combinations consisting of the same unknown target verbs and different known cues (nouns or adverbs). The participants were provided with a five-minute learning phase and two immediate recall tests: a Single Word Test, to write down the L1 meanings of the targets, and a Combination Test, to write down the L1 meanings of the combinations. The same two tests were administered one week later. The results showed that known nouns were better cues for learning unknown verbs than known adverbs. It was also found that participants with a larger vocabulary size benefited more from two-word combination learning.

Revisiting the effectiveness of study abroad language programs: A multi-level meta-analysis

Wen-Ta Tseng, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology

Yeu-Ting Liu, Department of English, National Taiwan Normal University

Yi-Ting Hsu,University of Notre Dame

Hsi-Chin Chu, National Taiwan Normal University

AbstractThis study set out to re-examine the effectiveness of study abroad programs in second language (L2) acquisition through a multi-level meta-analysis. Overall, 42 primary studies published between 1995 and 2019 were identified, and in total 283 effect sizes were meta-analysed. This study implemented a three-level random effects model to account for the clustered, mutually dependent effect sizes often nested in the primary studies of L2 study abroad research. The results indicated a medium-to-large effect (g = 0.87) on study abroad language programs. Essentially, the featured moderators in general explained more heterogeneity variances at level 3 (i.e. the between-study level) than at level 2 (i.e. the within study level). For study abroad language learners, language acquisition is optimal when learners, in particular those of a lower proficiency level, take both formal and content-based language courses while living with host families. Learners’ age and pre-program training may not moderate the effectiveness of study abroad language programs. Importantly, this study further established that the length of study abroad programs are positively associated with learners’ language gains, but that an extended and prolonged domestic program does not necessarily lead to such gains. Research and pedagogical implications are further discussed based on the research findings.

Engagement in language learning: A systematic review of 20 years of research methods and definitions

Phil Hiver, Florida State University, USA

Ali H. Al-Hoorie, Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu, Saudi Arabia

Joseph P. Vitta, Rikkyo University and Kyushu University, Japan

Janice Wu, Florida State University, USA

AbstractAt the turn of the new millennium, in an article published in Language Teaching Research in 2000, Dörnyei and Kormos proposed that ‘active learner engagement is a key concern’ for all instructed language learning. Since then, language engagement research has increased exponentially. In this article, we present a systematic review of 20 years of language engagement research. To ensure robust coverage, we searched 21 major journals on second language acquisition (SLA) and applied linguistics and identified 112 reports satisfying our inclusion criteria. The results of our analysis of these reports highlighted the adoption of heterogeneous methods and conceptual frameworks in the language engagement literature, as well as indicating a need to refine the definitions and operationalizations of engagement in both quantitative and qualitative research. Based on these findings, we attempted to clarify some lingering ambiguity around fundamental definitions, and to more clearly delineate the scope and target of language engagement research. We also discuss future avenues to further advance understanding of the nature, mechanisms, and outcomes resulting from engagement in language learning.

The effects of four instructional strategies on English learners’ English reading comprehension: A meta-analysis

Jui-Teng Li, Department of Individual, Family, & Community Education, University of New Mexico, USA

Fuhui Tong, Department of Educational Psychology, Texas A&M University, USA

Beverly J. Irby, Department of Educational Administration and Human Resource Development, Texas A&M University, USA

Rafael Lara-Alecio, Department of Educational Psychology, Texas A&M University, USA

Hector Rivera, Department of Educational Psychology, Texas A&M University, USA

AbstractThis meta-analysis includes experimental and quasi-experimental studies of reading interventions for English learners (ELs) coupled with four specific instructional strategies. The purposes of this meta-analysis were two-fold: (1) to identify the effects of the four instructional strategies (i.e. scaffolding, graphic organizers, interactive read aloud, and leveled questions) on ELs’ reading comprehension; and (2) to evaluate the combined effect of these four strategies when used together on ELs’ reading comprehension. In addition to considering that different studies might have varying effect sizes on ELs’ reading comprehension, we also conducted moderator analyses to explore potential moderators that might affect the variation between selected studies. Our moderators were school level, intervention duration, language learning context, and sample size. After an extensive search of research literature, 23 studies were identified that met the inclusion criteria of this meta-analysis study with a total of 2,284 participants. Mean effect sizes among these studies ranged from –.05 to 2.23, depending on instructional strategies. These studies were associated with increased reading comprehension across varied school levels, methodological features, and settings. Our findings showed that each of the four instructional strategies is beneficial for ELs’ reading comprehension. We also found an additional potential benefit on ELs’ reading comprehension when these four instructional strategies are used together throughout a lesson. Our findings also revealed that intervention duration was the only significant moderator, suggesting that the longer the treatment is, the greater the impact will be on ELs’ comprehension.

Referencing word and phrase lists in an online vocabulary notebook

Nathaniel Carney, Kobe College, Japan

Abstract The current study investigated 29 first-year Japanese university students’ usage of an online vocabulary notebook that automatically searched eight different word and phrase lists to provide students with reference information about their self-selected vocabulary. Over the course of a 14-week period, participants read English books and articles and added self-selected vocabulary that they wanted to learn to individual online vocabulary notebooks. The notebooks immediately and automatically showed whether the vocabulary appeared on any of eight different reference vocabulary lists. The distribution of participant vocabulary across lists was examined and participant surveys and interviews were conducted to understand usage of the system. Analysis of participant vocabulary, learner surveys, and interviews indicated that participants selected relatively high percentages of standardized-test related vocabulary (i.e. TOEIC and TOEFL), chose individual vocabulary items over multi-word expressions, and studied vocabulary items even when they did not appear on any reference lists. Learner surveys and interview results suggested that use of the system directly or indirectly influenced half of the participants’ decisions about which vocabulary to include in their notebooks, though participants reported that it did not affect their choice of reading material.

Pre-service Chinese language teachers’ conceptions of assessment: A person-centered perspective

Lin Lin, Shanghai University of Finance and Economics, China

Guan Ying Li, National Taiwan University

Xuejun Guo, Ningbo University, China

Abstract Teachers’ conceptions of assessment are a significant indicator of teacher assessment literacy. This study contextualized pre-service teachers’ conceptions of assessment in Chinese second language education. An exploratory factor analysis generated eight first-order factors and the following confirmatory factor analysis found a hierarchical model, reflecting a noticeable influence of prior learning experiences and official assessment regimes on conceptions. A follow-up latent profile analysis showed three profiles. Improvement-oriented was the most prevalent profile, but more than 40% of the participants were categorized as negative. The study substantiated the need to develop an integrative and balanced understanding of assessment in teacher education to prepare pre-service teachers for teaching in international contexts.

The impact of explicit strategy instruction on EFL secondary school learners’ reading

Muthita Chinpakdee, Chiang Mai University, Thailand

Peter Yongqi Gu, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand

Abstract AThis article reports findings from a larger research project which aimed to promote learner autonomy among Thai secondary school learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) through strategy-based instruction (SBI). The study involved 30 learners from an intervention class and 32 learners from a comparison class. Nine strategies were introduced to the intervention class learners over a semester with the purpose of helping them develop essential skills for strategic and autonomous language learning. This article focuses on examining how explicit teaching of strategies in class affected learners’ reading scores and approaches to reading. It also observes the effects of SBI on learners’ perceptions of their ability to read English. Findings from the pre-, post- and delayed reading tests and think-aloud reading sessions showed significant increase in the intervention class learners’ reading test scores and their enhanced strategic approaches to reading. Group interviews further revealed learners’ positive attitudes towards English reading and increased confidence in their ability to manage their reading process independently. This article argues that explicit strategy instruction can help language learners develop essential strategic skills to process English texts. It also discusses how SBI can be effectively implemented in language classrooms.

Effects of the 4/3/2 activity revisited: Extending Boers (2014) and Thai & Boers (2016)

Mai Ngoc Tran, Thu Dau Mot University, Vietnam

Kazuya Saito, University College London, UK

Abstract Whereas scholars have extensively researched the pedagogical potential of 4/3/2 activities (i.e. increasing time pressure in task repetition) for enhancing second language (L2) fluency, its impact on L2 accuracy remains unclear. To help L2 learners improve both fluency and accuracy, the present study examined the effects of adding accuracy enhancement (AE) as a form of delayed metalinguistic correction to the 4/3/2 activity on the development of L2 fluency (speed, breakdown, repair) and accuracy (the acquisition of irregular and regular forms of English past tense). A total of 36 university-level students participated in three 20-minute dyadic sessions. They were randomly divided into three groups: Control, 4/3/2 and 4/3/2+AE. Whereas the 4/3/2 group repeated a monologue task three times with increasing time pressure (4 → 3 → 2 minutes), those in the 4/3/2+AE received metalinguistic correction from the researcher during the 4/3/2 activity. According to the results, a combined approach, 4/3/2+AE, simultaneously impacted learners’ overall fluency and accuracy across different topics. However, certain aspects of their fluency and accuracy development, especially those related to linguistic encoding (reduction in pauses within clauses; regular past tense forms), remained unchanged.

Task complexity, L2 proficiency and EFL learners’ L1 use in task-based peer interaction

Jinfen Xu, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China

Yumei Fan, Central China Normal University, China

Abstract This study is aimed to identify the effects of task complexity on first language (L1) use and the functions it may serve when two groups of learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) work on collaborative tasks. Twenty-four pairs of Chinese EFL learners from two universities were assigned to a lower-proficiency and a higher-proficiency group, each with twelve pairs. Each group completed two collaborative tasks of different cognitive complexity. The results showed that task complexity had an appreciable impact on the use of L1 and its functions. It is also found that the impact of task complexity was dependent on learners’ English proficiency. Specifically, the higher-proficiency group employed more L1 to perform complex tasks than they did in the simple versions of the tasks. These learners also devoted significantly more L1 turns to fulfill the functions of metacognitive and grammar talk to complete the complex tasks. These trends did not hold for the lower-proficiency group.

Individual differences in self-regulated learning: Exploring the nexus of motivational beliefs, self-efficacy, and SRL strategies in EFL writing

Lin Sophie Teng, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China

Abstract  

Teachers’ perceptions of linguistic mediation in the curriculum for advanced English in Madrid secondary schools

Miguel Fernández Álvarez, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain

Silvia García Hernández, Universidad de Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Spain

Abstract  After the publication of the CEFR Companion Volume in 2018, a revision of the curriculum in force for the English subject in the Bilingual Sections in the Community of Madrid has been implemented. One of the main changes is the inclusion of the concept of linguistic mediation in the subject ‘Advanced English’ in the last stage of secondary education. In an attempt to understand how linguistic mediation strategies and activities are being developed in real classroom contexts, this study has focused on teachers’ perceptions of linguistic mediation. A questionnaire and a focus group were used to examine teachers’ understanding and awareness of linguistic mediation, as well as the type of mediation activities that are relevant for their students and the extent to which they include linguistic mediation activities and strategies in their lessons. Additionally, the study has shown some of the deficiencies that exist in the way linguistic mediation is currently being addressed in the classroom, as well as teachers’ needs in order to better implement it.

Maximizing the benefits of peer interaction: Form-focused instruction and peer feedback training

Lieselotte Sippel, Yale University, USA

Abstract This classroom study investigated the effectiveness of form-focused instruction and peer feedback training to improve grammatical accuracy and thereby maximize learning opportunities during peer interaction. Eighty-seven third-semester learners of German were assigned to a PI group (peer interaction only), an FFI group (peer interaction and form-focused instruction), or a PFT group (peer interaction, form-focused instruction, and peer feedback training). During an instructional intervention over 3 class periods, participants in all 3 groups engaged in the same peer interaction activities, but only the FFI group and the PFT group received form-focused instruction on the grammatical target structure, the German present perfect tense. Critically, only the PFT group was trained to provide corrective feedback to peers. Results from a pretest and two posttests, all of which included an oral production task and an error correction task, showed that peer interaction was effective when combined with form-focused instruction, but more effective when peer feedback training was also provided to learners. These results underscore the importance of instruction on peer feedback for more successful peer interaction activities.

‘How much freedom do we have?’ The perceived autonomy of secondary school EFL teachers in Indonesia

Andrzej Cirocki, University of York, UK

Syafi’ul Anam, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia

Abstract  This article presents the findings of a study measuring perceptions of teacher autonomy of practitioners of English as a foreign language (EFL). This study also sought to identify areas in which Indonesian secondary schools need to improve to enable teachers to enjoy a greater degree of freedom while completing teaching-related activities. Additionally, it aimed to explore correlations between practitioners’ perceptions of teacher autonomy and their gender, school location, school status and teaching experience. This was a mixed-methods study comprising a sequential explanatory design with two consecutive stages: quantitative and qualitative. The data were gathered using two instruments: a closed-ended questionnaire and a focus group. The sample consisted of 185 (74 male and 111 female) Indonesian secondary school EFL teachers, recruited using convenience sampling. The findings indicated that teachers’ sense of autonomy in relation to seven specific areas of their work was relatively high. Specifically, they perceived themselves to have a considerable amount of autonomy with respect to teaching methodology, instructional materials, course content, assessment, and, more recently, lesson planning. However, they expressed disappointment at being excluded from the decision-making process regarding the school curriculum. The findings also revealed that teachers expected more school support in relation to teaching facilities and professional development. The article concludes by considering several key implications for school management teams regarding the need to foster teacher autonomy among English language practitioners.

Effects of interactive alignment on L2 vocabulary learning by Chinese EFL learners

Xiao Zhou, Guangdong University of Technology, China

Chuming Wang, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, China

Abstract  This article aims to uncover how alignment affects second language (L2) vocabulary acquisition by Chinese-speaking learners of English as they interact with various interaction loads (i.e. input text, peers and video). It also explores how tasks with varying interactional intensity in relation to the interaction loads influence the alignment magnitude and vocabulary learning outcomes. To this end, two studies were conducted. In Study 1, three groups of L2 learners were instructed to learn and use the target words while performing paraphrase, summary or continuation task. The results indicated that task-induced interactional intensity had robust effects on alignment magnitude as well as receptive and productive lexical knowledge. In Study 2, three groups of L2 learners were asked to complete a continuation task while interacting with high-proficiency peers (HL group), low-proficiency peers (LL group) or with both low-proficiency peers & video (LLM group). The results showed that interacting with high-proficiency partners had positive impact on alignment magnitude and lexical knowledge, but video exerted only a limited effect. The findings afforded evidence for the ‘interaction–alignment–learning’ research route and accounted for vocabulary acquisition from a new perspective.

A longitudinal study of formulaic sequence use in second language writing: Complex dynamic systems perspective

Shiping Duan, Zhongyuan University of Technology, China

Zhiliang Shi, Zhongyuan University of Technology, China

Abstract  This study investigates the use of formulaic sequences (FS) in academic writings of Chinese learners of English as a foreign language across different levels of studies at a public university in China. Frequency-based formulas were retrieved from a corpus of student academic texts written at five time points between Year 1 and Year 3. The structure, semantic transparency (as measured by mutual information, abbreviated as MI), function of the formulas and first language – second language (L1–L2) congruency were explored to identify factors influencing FS development over time using generalized linear mixed-effects modeling (GLMM). Results indicate that MI, structure and assumed learners’ proficiency (time points) and their interactions produced significant effects on the development of L2 FS, but function and congruency did not. The individual variation and nonlinearity of FS development were interpreted with Complex Dynamic Systems Theory (CDST). Based on the longitudinal study, we highlight the usefulness of GLMM in accounting for both systematicity and individual variation in L2 development from a CDST perspective.

Task-induced involvement load, vocabulary learning in a foreign language, and their association with metacognition

Mark Feng Teng, Beijing Normal University at Zhuhai, China

Danyang Zhang, Shenzhen University, China

Abstract  This study examined the effects of involvement load-based tasks on vocabulary learning in a foreign language, as well as the extent to which task effects are predicted by learners’ metacognition (i.e. metacognitive knowledge and regulation). A total of 120 Chinese university students of English as a foreign language (EFL) were randomly assigned to four task conditions: (1) reading; (2) reading + gap-fill; (3) reading + writing; and (4) reading + writing with the use of a digital dictionary. The Vocabulary Knowledge Scale was adapted to measure condition effects. The Metacognitive Awareness Inventory was used to examine learners’ metacognitive knowledge and regulation. Results revealed that the group of learners who completed reading + writing tasks with the use of a digital dictionary demonstrated the best performance in acquiring receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge, followed by the reading + writing group, the reading + gap-fill group, and, finally, the reading only group. Multiple regression analysis supported the predictive effects of metacognitive regulation on task-based vocabulary learning. Structural equation modelling presented an overall profile of task-based vocabulary learning and metacognition. Based on the findings, we proposed a framework to understand the relationship between learners’ metacognition, task type, and L2 vocabulary learning.

The effects of reference of comparison (self-referential vs. normative) and regulatory focus (promotion vs. prevention) feedback on EFL learners’ willingness to communicate

Nourollah Zarrinabadi, University of Isfahan, Iran

Elham Saberi Dehkordi, Islamic Azad University, Najafabad branch, Iran

Abstract This article reports on a mixed methods study that examined the effect of reference of comparison (self-referential vs. normative) and regulatory focus (promotion-focused vs. prevention-focused) on willingness to communicate (WTC) among learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). One hundred female English learners were randomly assigned to the self-referential, normative, prevention, promotion, and control feedback groups. They received different types of feedback for 15 sessions. The students were tested for their WTC, anxiety and communication competence before and after the intervention. The results of MANOVA and paired samples comparisons indicated that self-referential, normative, and promotion feedback positively improved WTC and communication competence and decreased anxiety. However, prevention feedback decreased WTC and communication competence and increased anxiety. Follow-up interview data indicated that feedback influenced WTC by providing learning checks or affecting learners’ self-confidence, reducing anxiety, fostering motivation, and decreasing peer pressure. Finally, it was suggested that teachers should mainly present feedback to emphasize task accomplishments and growth and to inform the students about their progress over time.

Understanding reading teachers’ self-directed use of drama-based pedagogy in an under-resourced educational setting: A case study in China

Xiaodong Zhang, Beijing Foreign Studies University, China

Abstract This case study explores the trajectory of a reading teacher’s self-directed development when implementing drama-based pedagogy in an under-resourced College in China. Through qualitative analyses of multiple data sources collected over one semester, the study demonstrates that the teacher’s self-directed use of drama-based pedagogy following teacher student joint learning of reading texts was contextually driven with his use of drama-based pedagogy being partially motivated by its potential to engage his students’ interest in reading learning. The teacher was able to dynamically adjust and refine his implementation of drama-based pedagogy in relation to his students’ post-reading reading reflections, their drama planning and dramatic presentations, their post-performance reflections, as well as their in-class learning. The students’ increased interest for reading and improved literacy development in the latter part of the semester augmented the teacher’s confidence in drama-based pedagogy, and feelings of self-empowerment resulting from his self-directed development. The study concludes that, along with teachers’ efforts to deal with the dynamic complexities of better meeting students’ needs, the self-directed use of drama-based pedagogy can be a helpful and accessible tool to support reading teachers to re-conceptualize their self-directed development in an under-resourced educational context.

Emblematic gestures learning in Spanish as L2/FL: Interactions between types of gestures and tasks

Helena S. Belío-Apaolaza, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA

Natividad Hernández Muñoz, University of Salamanca, Spain

Abstract The acquisition of communicative competence in second and foreign languages requires the incorporation of verbal and non-verbal elements. Notwithstanding, few studies have performed empirical research into the acquisition of non-verbal signs. This research studies the learning of emblematic gestures for students of Spanish in the USA using an evolutionary analysis after instruction. Interactions between types of gestures (common, different, and unique) based on the similarities with the first language and learning mechanisms in free and guided comprehension and production tasks are taken into account. The results indicate that although the detection and production of emblems improve with instruction, the progress is unequal: the categories different and unique obtain a higher rate of improvement than common emblems in specific tasks. In conclusion, it is essential for the teaching of gestures and non-verbal communication to consider, along with the non-verbal target language code, the non-verbal mother tongue code.

Investigating the effect of textual enhancement in post-reading tasks on grammatical development by child language learners

Yoojin Chung, University College London, UK

Andrea Révész, University College London, UK

Abstract This study examined the extent to which textual enhancement incorporated into the post-task stage of task-based reading lessons can promote development in second language (L2) grammatical knowledge. The participants were 49 child language learners who participated in task-based reading lessons in their own classroom contexts. They were randomly assigned to two groups, one being exposed to textual enhancement and the other not. The experiment adopted a multiple-exposure design involving six treatment sessions over three weeks. The target construction was the third person singular -s morpheme. Pretest-posttest development was assessed with a grammaticality judgement test. The results revealed a small but positive effect for textual enhancement. We attributed the relative success of textual enhancement to a combination of factors: use of a multiple-exposure design, the incorporation of textual enhancement into the post-task rather than the during-task stage, age of participants, and prior knowledge.

Social psychological accounts of peer emotion transfer in EFL classrooms: A doubly latent multilevel analysis

Kaiqi Shao, Hangzhou Dianzi University, China

Brian Parkinson, University of Oxford, UK

Abstract  Based on theories of emotion contagion and social appraisal in interpersonal affect transfer and the control-value theory of achievement emotions, the present study examined associations between students’ perceptions of peer emotions and their own self-perceived emotions in English as a foreign language (EFL) classrooms. Data were collected from 103 seventh to ninth grade classrooms (n = 3,643) using self-report questionnaires. Doubly latent multilevel structural equation modeling showed that perceived peer enjoyment, anxiety and boredom, and students’ corresponding emotions for language learning, were positively related and that the effects of perceived peer enjoyment, anxiety and boredom on corresponding student emotions were mediated by control and value appraisals at the individual level. At the class level, however, the mediation effects were only significant for control appraisal as a mediator of effects on anxiety and value appraisal as a mediator of effects on boredom. Effects were robust across grade level, gender and previous language achievement. The discussion centers on the practical implications of peer emotion interactions for promoting foreign language development in classroom instruction.

The effects of a metacognitive intervention on lower-proficiency EFL learners’ listening comprehension and listening self-efficacy

Brett Milliner, Tamagawa University, Japan

Blagoja Dimoski, Tamagawa University, Japan

Abstract  Focusing on the teaching of listening strategies to second language (L2) learners, this study sought to revisit Renandya and Farrell’s (2011) claims that explicit listening strategy instruction for lower-proficiency learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) is a fruitless endeavor. As such, we implemented a quasi-experimental study to measure the effectiveness of a metacognitive intervention for a convenience sample of lower-proficiency (CEFR A2) Japanese university EFL learners (n = 129). The training program focused on an explicit process-based approach, involving integrated experiential learning tasks and guided reflections, to develop learners’ L2 listening skills. Data collection consisted of TOEIC® test scores, listening comprehension tests, cloze tests, a listening self-efficacy questionnaire, and a post-treatment survey. While the training program was received favorably by students, and students displayed a slightly more confident stance towards listening in their L2, we were unable to find any strong empirical evidence that our lower-proficiency EFL learners’ listening performance improved. As such, these results provide evidence of a potential proficiency threshold for EFL learners to start to benefit from a strategy-focused metacognitive intervention.

Extending the efficacy of Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR) in teaching reading strategies: A socio-cultural emotional perspective

Ali Amjadi, University of Mazandaran, Iran

Seyed Hassan Talebi, University of Mazandaran, Iran

Abstract Implementing social-emotional learning skills into Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR), the current study intended to extend the efficacy of CSR for teaching reading strategies when applying it to students in rural areas from a working-class community. To this purpose, forty-four students who made the comparison and the experimental groups were taught reading strategies through CSR and ECSR (Extended Collaborative Strategic Reading), respectively. A reading comprehension test with different question types was given to the students as pretest and posttest, and an interview was given at the end of the study to investigate the perception of the students toward reading strategy instruction through CSR and ECSR. Analysis of data indicated that only the ECSR group improved significantly in overall reading comprehension, but the componential analysis of the reading test showed that despite the fact that the CSR group showed no significant improvement in the reading tests in four formats (true–false, multiple-choice, matching, and cloze), the ECSR group improved significantly in reading tests with multiple-choice and cloze test formats. Moreover, although the students in both groups showed a positive view toward the interventions, the students in the ECSR group improved in social-emotional and communication skills. It seems that CSR can be improved to be effective by implementing the emotional component to it.

On the acquisition of complex classifier constructions by L2 learners of a sign language

Eveline Boers-Visker, Utrecht University of Applied Sciences, The Netherlands/University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Abstract Sign language learners with a spoken language background face the challenge of acquiring a second language in a different modality. In the course of this endeavor, one of the modality-specific phenomena they encounter is the use of classifier predicates, also known as depicting signs. Classifier predicates contain a meaningful hand configuration that refers to an entity, denoting a salient characteristic of this entity (Zwitserlood, 2003). The use of a classifier predicate allows the signer to indicate the location, motion and orientation of a referent. If two classifier predicates are used simultaneously, the signer can represent the spatial arrangement of both referents (Schembri, Jones and Burnham, 2001). This visual representation is new for learners with a spoken language background. Since there is a paucity of literature on second language (L2) sign language acquisition, there is no empirical evidence on the developmental stages that L2 learners go through in acquiring the devices to produce such visual representations. In this study, we followed 14 novel learners of Sign Language of the Netherlands (NGT) over a period of two years. The learners were asked to produce sign language descriptions of prompts containing various objects (e.g. cars, bicycles, trucks, human beings and animals) that could be depicted by a classifier predicate. Analyses show that after a year of instruction, the majority of learners are capable of producing scene descriptions featuring two classifier predicates to denote the spatial layout of the objects. The first classifier predicates appear in the data at an early stage, suggesting that the strategy of denoting an object with a meaningful handshape representing the object is not difficult to learn. Furthermore, the data show that learners initially struggle with the orientation of objects and handshape selection. This study is the first to systematically elicit classifier predicates from novel learners for an extended period of time. The results have important implications for the field of sign language pedagogy and teaching.

A practitioner study on the implementation of strategy instruction for boredom regulation

Sachiko Nakamura, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand

Pornapit Darasawang, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand

Hayo Reinders, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand

Abstract  This article recounts my experience in enhancing my students’ boredom regulation by designing, implementing, and evaluating a strategy instruction project. The project was undertaken with 25 Thai university students enrolled in my English oral communication course for 15 weeks. The project began with exploring how and why my students experienced boredom in my classroom and their habitual boredom coping strategies while examining and modifying the initial design of my strategy instruction. Between weeks 8 and 12, I implemented five boredom regulation strategy sessions by using reappraisals and boredom coping as key components. Students engaged in guided practice, developed their own boredom regulation strategy toolkit, shared their ideas with peers, and reflected on their strategy use. Triangulating data from whole-class surveys, focus group interviews, and the toolkits, I illustrate the positive impact of the project shown on my students’ boredom regulation and on my teacher-researcher development, despite the challenges associated with the complex nature of boredom regulation in an authentic instructional setting. This study sheds light on the ways that students and their teacher can work together to cope with boredom in second language (L2) classroom learning.

期刊简介

Language Teaching Research is a peer-reviewed journal that publishes research within the area of second or foreign language teaching. Although articles are written in English, the journal welcomes studies dealing with the teaching of languages other than English as well. 

The journal is a venue for studies that demonstrate sound research methods and which report findings that have clear pedagogical implications. 

A wide range of topics in the area of language teaching is covered, including:

• Programme

• Syllabus

• Materials design

• Methodology

• The teaching of specific skills and language for specific purposes

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https://journals.sagepub.com/home/ltr

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